THREE DOUBLY CHARGED LAYERS ON THE SURFACE OF STARS

A.S. Eddington in 1926 pointed out that stars must have a small positive charge to hold electrons, and this is a doubly charged layer! Here we consider the interconnected formation of three doubly charged layers around a hot star. Thermal energy initiates thermoelectron emission, and strong gravity holds the positive ions. This is how the first "Edington" double charged layer (DCL1) is formed on the surface of the lower chromosphere. Charge fluctuations locally strengthen DCL1, ionisation instability and local ambipolar diffusion start. Thus spicules with DCL2 on top are formed, DCL2 is an accelerator with positive ions on top and a cathode of shielding electrons. Ions accelerated to 1.8-9 KeV are injected into the corona causing it to heat up. The emission of electrons from the high-temperature corona forms DCL3. The magnitude of the positive charge of each DCL depends on the mass, spin, temperature, and composition of the star. The chromospheric spicules, the high temperature of the star's corona, the presence of many charged ions, recombination emission from the EUV to gamma rays, and the solar wind form these doubly charged layers.